Political Science International Politics History, Theories, Agreements, Law & Organizations
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Overview
Governments not only interact with the people they rule but also with other governments—to trade, to share ideas, to work together to solve global problems, and to resolve disputes. Political scientists have been analyzing international relations— relations between states—for centuries, but never more so than during the twentieth century, as scholars tried to explain the reasons for and explore the aftermath of World Wars I and II and the Cold War that followed.
Although numerous international agreements and institutions exist to facilitate smooth relations among the nearly 200 countries in the world, international politics can still be extremely violent. Even though people have fought one another for millennia, political scientists still do not know exactly what causes people and states to go to war, start revolutions, or commit acts of terrorism. Identifying both immediate and long-term causes and consequences of political violence, as well as thinking about the impact of this violence on the international system, has become an important part of political science.
History of the International System
States engage with one another in an environment known as the international system. All states are considered to be sovereign, and some states are more powerful than others. The system has a number of informal rules about how things should be done, but these rules are not binding. International relations have existed as long as states themselves. But the modern international system under which we live today is only a few centuries old. Significant events have marked the milestones in the development of the international system.
The Peace of Westphalia (1648)
In 1648, the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years’ War between Catholic states and Protestant states in western and central Europe, established our modern international system. It declared that the sovereign leader of each nation-state could do as she or he wished within its borders and established the state as the main actor in global politics. From that point forward, the international system has consisted primarily of relations among nation-states.
Shifting Balances of Power (1600–1800)
In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the nation-state emerged as the dominant political unit of the international system. A series of powerful states dominated Europe, with the great powers rising and falling. Weaker states often banded together to prevent the dominant power from becoming too strong, a practice known as preserving the balance of power. Frequent wars and economic competition marked this era. Some nations—notably France and England—were powerful through most of the modern age, but some—such as Spain and the Ottoman Empire—shrank in power over time.
Emergence of Nationalism (1800–1945)
The nineteenth century brought two major changes to the international system:
- Nationalism emerged as a strong force, allowing nation-states to grow even more powerful.
- Italy and Germany became unified countries, which altered the balance of military and economic power in Europe.
The problems raised by the unification of Germany contributed to World War I (1914–1918). In the aftermath of the war, the international system changed dramatically again. The major powers of Europe had suffered greatly, whereas the United States began to come out of its isolation and transform into a global power. At the same time, the end of the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires created a series of new nations, and the rise of communism in Russia presented problems for other nations. These factors contributed to the Treaty of Versailles, the rise of Nazism and communism, and World War II (1939–1945).
New World Orders (1945–Present)
The end of World War II marked a decisive shift in the global system. After the war, only two great world powers remained: the United States and the Soviet Union. Although some other important states existed, almost all states were understood within the context of their relations with the two superpowers. This global system was called bipolar because the system centered on two great powers.
Since the end of the Cold War and the fall of the Soviet Union, the nature of the world has changed again. Only one superpower remains, leading some scholars to label the new international system unipolar. Others point to the increasing economic power of some European and Asian states and label the new system multipolar. To some extent, both terms are accurate. The United States has the world’s most powerful military, which supports the unipolar view, but the U.S. economy is not as powerful, relative to the rest of the world, lending credence to the multipolar view.
| System | Number of Nations with Power | Nations with Power | Dates |
| Unipolar | One | United States | Post-1989 |
| Bipolar | Two | United States and the Soviet Union | 1945–1989 |
| Multi-polar | Several | United States, United Kingdom, France, Russia, Germany, Italy, Japan | Pre–World War I |
| United States, European Union, China, India | Post-1989 |
A Plethora of Politics
Political scientists usually use the terms international politics and global politics synonymously, but technically the terms have different meanings. International politics, strictly speaking, refers to relationships between states. Global politics, in contrast, refers to relationships among states and other interest groups, such as global institutions, corporations, and political activists. Comparative politics seeks to understand how states work by comparing them to one another. While international relations studies how states relate to one another, comparative politics compare the internal workings of a state, its political institutions, its political culture, and the political behavior of its citizens.
Theories of International Relations
A theory of international relations is a set of ideas that explains how the international system works. Unlike an ideology, a theory of international relations is (at least in principle) backed up with concrete evidence. The two major theories of international relations are realism and liberalism.
National Interest
Most theories of international relations are based on the idea that states always act in accordance with their national interest, or the interests of that particular state. State interests often include self-preservation, military security, economic prosperity, and influence over other states. Sometimes two or more states have the same national interest. For example, two states might both want to foster peace and economic trade. And states with diametrically opposing national interests might try to resolve their differences through negotiation or even war.
Realism
According to realism, states work only to increase their own power relative to that of other states. Realism also claims the following:
- The world is a harsh and dangerous place. The only certainty in the world is power. A powerful state will always be able to outdo—and outlast—weaker competitors. The most important and reliable form of power is military power.
- A state’s primary interest is self-preservation. Therefore, the state must seek power and must always protect itself
- There is no overarching power that can enforce global rules or punish bad behavior.
- Moral behavior is very risky because it can undermine a state’s ability to protect itself.
- The international system itself drives states to use military force and to war. Leaders may be moral, but they must not let moral concerns guide foreign policy.
- International organizations and law have no power or force; they exist only as long as states accept them.
Politicians have practiced realism as long as states have existed. Most scholars and politicians during the Cold War viewed international relations through a realist lens. Neither the United States nor the Soviet Union trusted the other, and each sought allies to protect itself and increase its political and military influence abroad. Realism has also featured prominently in the administration of George W. Bush.
Machiavelli
One of the best-known realist thinkers is the notorious Niccolo Machiavelli. In his book The Prince (1513), he advised rulers to use deceit and violence as tools against other states. Moral goals are so dangerous, he wrote, that to act morally will bring about disaster. He also gave advice about how to deal with conflicts among neighboring states and how to defend one’s homeland. Machiavelli’s name has become synonymous with nasty and brutal politics.
Liberalism
Liberalism emphasizes that the broad ties among states have both made it difficult to define national interest and decreased the usefulness of military power. Liberalism developed in the 1970s as some scholars began arguing that realism was outdated. Increasing globalization, the rapid rise in communications technology, and the increase in international trade meant that states could no longer rely on simple power politics to decide matters. Liberal approaches to international relations are also called theories of complex interdependence. Liberalism claims the following:
- The world is a harsh and dangerous place, but the consequences of using military power often outweigh the benefits. International cooperation is therefore in the interest of every state.
- Military power is not the only form of power. Economic and social power matter a great deal too. Exercising economic power has proven more effective than exercising military power.
- Different states often have different primary interests.
- International rules and organizations can help foster cooperation, trust, and prosperity.
Example: Relations among the major Western powers fit a model of complex interdependence very well. The United States has significant disagreements with its European and Asian allies over trade and policy, but it is hard to imagine a circumstance in which the United States would use military power against any of these allies. Instead, the United States relies on economic pressure and incentives to achieve its policy aims.
Idealism
Idealism is a specific school of liberalism that stresses the need for states to pursue moral goals and to act ethically in the international arena. Idealists believe that behavior considered immoral on an interpersonal level is also immoral in foreign policy. Therefore, idealists argue that dishonesty, trickery, and violence should be shunned. In the United States, idealism has usually been associated with the Democratic Party since World War I.
Example: As he negotiated the treaty to end World War I in 1918, Woodrow Wilson worked to promote democracy and national self-determination. Wilson’s idealism led him to push hard for the creation of the League of Nations, an international organization that would fight aggression and protect the weak from the strong, in 1919. Scholars use the term Wilsonian to describe a person or group who advocates promoting democracy overseas in the name of idealism.
International Agreements and Law
In order to make the global system less chaotic and unpredictable, states often make agreements with one another to modify their behavior. International agreements are treaties signed by a number of states that establish global rules of conduct. Some agreements focus on single issues, whereas others cover many areas. Theoretically, international agreements benefit the states that sign them. States that break these rules—sometimes called rogue states—are usually treated with wariness by the rest of the world.
Example: The United States has identified North Korea, Iran, Syria, and Cuba as rogue states because they have continually threatened international security by harboring terrorists and fostering the development of weapons of mass destruction. Afghanistan and Iraq were considered rogue states before the American invasions in the early twenty-first century. As soon as a state begins cooperating and participating in the international community, it loses its status as a rogue state. In 2002, the U.S. Department of State removed Libya from its list of rogue states after the Libyan government voluntarily agreed to renounce terrorism and violence.
International law is the collection of rules and regulations that have evolved over the past few centuries. These rules define the rights and obligations of states. Sometimes treaties codify and formalize international law, but just as often, international law arises from custom and habit. The International Court of Justice, in the Netherlands, is the judicial body of the United Nations and is responsible for resolving disputes among states.
Example: In 2006, the International Court of Justice heard testimony relating to a boundary dispute between Nicaragua and Colombia. Another case on its docket concerned charges of genocide brought by Bosnia against Serbia; in early 2007, the court ruled in favor of Bosnia, deciding that Serbia had failed to prevent genocide in Bosnia.
The Effectiveness of International Law
A key dispute among political scientists concerns the effectiveness of international law. Realists argue that because there is no international police force to enforce international law, the law has no real power. States only obey international law when it is in their interest to do so. Liberalists, however, dispute this idea, contending that there are real consequences to breaking international law—such as sanctions and even military occupation—and that international organizations have a measurable impact on global relations.
International Treaties
International treaties serve as an important part of international law. States sign treaties to end wars, protect their interests, and make international law. The treaties listed in the chart below have significantly contributed to the structure of the international systems.
| Significant International Treaties | ||
| Treaty | Date Signed | Purpose/Effect |
| Sykes-Picot Agreement | 1916 | Set boundaries that still exist today for nations in the Middle East |
| Treaty of Versailles | 1919 | Ended World War I; its punitive treatment of Germany set the stage for World War II |
| Munich Agreement | 1938 | Gave the Sudetenland (part of Czechoslovakia) to Germany in exchange for a promise of no more expansion; its violation led to World War II |
| United Nations Charter | 1945 | Created the United Nations |
| General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade | 1947 | Greatly reduced tariffs and boosted trade |
| North Atlantic Treaty | 1949 | Created the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), an alliance of Western powers dedicated to preventing communist expansion |
| Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide | 1951 | Made genocide a crime punishable by the international community |
| Warsaw Pact | 1955 | The communist response to NATO; created an alliance of Eastern European communist states |
| International Atomic Energy Treaty | 1957 | Regulates the use of atomic energy |
| Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty | 1968 | Made it illegal for states without atomic weapons to acquire them |
| Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty | 1972 | Prevented the United States and the Soviet Union from developing antiballistic missiles |
| Camp David Accords | 1978 | A peace treaty between Egypt and Israel |
| Kyoto Protocol | 2005 | Regulates greenhouse emissions to reduce global warming |
International Organizations
Some international agreements create international organizations, which are institutions that set rules for nations and provide venues for diplomacy. There are two types of international organizations: international governmental organizations (IGOs) and international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs or, more commonly, NGOs). In recent years, multinational corporations (MNCs) have also had a significant impact on the international system.
IGOs and NGOs exist for a variety of reasons, such as controlling the proliferation of conventional and nuclear weapons, supervising trade, maintaining military alliances, ending world hunger, and fostering the spread of democracy and peace.
| Name | Type | Date Founded | Members as of 2006 |
| Amnesty International | NGO | 1961 | 1.8 million members in 150 countries |
| European Union (EU) | IGO | 1992 | 25 states, including the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Estonia |
| International Olympic Committee (IOC) | NGO | 1894 | 115 individuals, who represent the IOC in their home countries |
| Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) | IGO | 1960 | 11 states, including Venezuela, Qatar, and Indonesia |
| Salvation Army | NGO | 1878 | Runs programs in more than 100 countries; has 3.5 million volunteers |
| Save the Children | NGO | 1932 | Helps children in poverty around the world, including the United States and Nepal |
| United Nations (UN) | IGO | 1946 | 191 states, including Burkina Faso, Denmark, the United States, and Jamaica |
| World Bank | IGO | 1945 | Offers loans to more than 100 states, including Cameroon and Senegal |
International Governmental Organizations
IGOs form when governments make an agreement or band together. Only governments belong to IGOs, which are sometimes also known by the acronym IO (for international organization). The United Nations (UN), the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the World Trade Organization (WTO), and the European Union (EU) are all examples of IGOs.
Nongovernmental Organizations
Unlike governmental organizations, NGOs are made up of individuals, not businesses or governments. NGOs serve a variety of functions and represent numerous interests. Organizations that are not affiliated with governments but that nevertheless play an important role in international politics are called nongovernmental actors. Not all NGOs have a positive impact on global politics. Although Amnesty International has helped defend human rights, for example, the international terrorist organization al Qaeda has killed civilians in an effort to cripple economies and topple governments. Since the end of World War II, nongovernmental actors have become more important in the global arena.
Know the NGO Lingo
People have devised a variety of acronyms to define specific types of NGOs, including:
INGO: international nongovernmental organization
BINGO: business-oriented nongovernmental organization
RINGO: religious-oriented nongovernmental organization
ENGO: environmental nongovernmental organization
GONGO: government-operated nongovernmental organization
QUANGO: quasi-autonomous nongovernmental organization
Multinational Corporations
MNCs, or businesses that operate in more than one country, are another type of nongovernmental actor in the international system. Although MNCs are nongovernmental actors, they are not NGOs: As businesses, MNCs cannot be considered NGOs. Their primary aim is to make money. In the twenty-first century, MNCs dominate the global economy: According to the Coca-Cola corporation, for example, more than 70 million Coke products are consumed daily in Africa.
Example: Some MNCs—such as Coca-Cola, Microsoft, and IBM, to name a few—are worth more than many small countries, which means that they have the power to be major players in international politics. In 2000, for instance, the Central Intelligence Agency declassified several documents that incriminated ITT, the International Telephone and Telegraph Company, of having funded rebels to topple the government of Chile and establish a new, more business-friendly government in the early 1970s.
