Political Science Political Styles & American Ideologies
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Political Styles
States and political leaders use a variety of political styles to further the interests of the state, including:
- Nationalism
- Fascism
- Fundamentalism
Political scientists debate whether these styles constitute distinct ideologies in and of themselves. On the one hand, these styles are not as well codified or philosophically grounded as the five political ideologies previously discussed (anarchism, absolutism, liberalism, conservatism, and socialism). On the other hand, each has played a key role in shaping events in world history generally and twentieth-century governments specifically. Keep in mind that these styles and the five political ideologies are not mutually exclusive, so a government may be nationalist and liberal or nationalist, fascist, and conservative.
Nationalism
Nationalism, a strong belief that one’s nation is great (and, usually, better than others), also arose during the modern era. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, nationalism emerged as a powerful force that caused a number of revolutions. People began to identify with and take pride in their particular nation-state. The French Revolution and the subsequent Napoleonic Wars helped spread nationalism throughout Europe because many nations rallied together to defeat Napoleon.
Democracy and Nationalism
In some ways, nationalism works best in a democratic society. Nationalism is a popular movement because it has the potential to appeal to all citizens, and rallying large numbers of people together is necessary for a democratic society to function. Historically, many democratic states have prompted strong nationalist sentiments. France before and during World War I (1914–1918) was fiercely nationalist. The United States is also strongly nationalist.
Nationalist Beliefs
Nationalists believe that being a member of a particular nation is wonderful and worthy of celebration. For example, one should honor one’s “Frenchness” if from France or “Americanness” if from the United States. This belief is not tied to any one political system. Nationalists favor behavior, governmental systems, and other values or behaviors that promote a strong nation, including a powerful economy, a strong military, and unity among citizens. Threats to the nation are taken very seriously and need to be addressed. Historically, there have been many authoritarian regimes, in which governments may do whatever they want, that were strongly nationalist in character, but there are plenty of democratic nationalist states as well. The means of promoting a strong nation vary greatly from one nationalist state to another.
Example: The 2006 World Cup in Germany gave political scientists the opportunity to watch a democratic country become more nationalist. After World War II, Germans largely refrained from outwardly demonstrating any sense of nationalism, a result of lingering guilt over Nazism and the Holocaust. But the success of the German soccer team prompted many citizens to begin feeling strong nationalist pride for the first time in decades, including proudly displaying the German flag.
Fascism
Fascism is a highly nationalist, militaristic, totalitarian political ideology in which one person has absolute power. World War I was the key event that spawned fascism. The war was the first major war fought between industrialized nations, which were armed with technology such as machine guns and chemical weapons. The result was utter devastation. Millions died, entire countries collapsed, and those who survived were often profoundly disillusioned. For many people, the war showed that modern ideas had failed and that a new way was needed.
Fascism arose in Italy in the 1920s. Italy had fought on the winning side of World War I, but it had suffered greatly. Many Italians were angry and disappointed that the country gained very little for the price it paid. Some war veterans felt alienated from society: They had grown accustomed to the horrors of war, and now normal life seemed unreal and incomprehensible. Some of these war veterans began to rally together, trying to re-create the camaraderie of the war. Their meetings led to the development of fascism. In its original form, fascism was neither racist nor anti-Semitic. Indeed, some early Italian fascists were Jewish.
Although Italy was the birthplace of fascism, this -ism spread to other countries. In the mid- to late twentieth century, the Spanish government under General Francisco Franco was fascist, as were the Argentinean government under Juan Perón and some of the governments in Eastern Europe before WorldWar II. The Japanese government before and during World War II also shared some fascist ideas.
American Ideologies
American political ideologies are variations on classical liberalism. As a result, these ideologies tend to be very similar: Almost everyone in the United States, for example, believes in limited government, the free market, and individual liberty. Democrats just happen to lean slightly to the left and Republicans slightly to the right. Differences arise between these two groups because each party has a slightly different opinion on how best to achieve these goals. American political ideologies, like all others, are not monolithic. Republicans frequently disagree with other Republicans, and Democrats frequently disagree with other Democrats. In the end, however, members of both parties share very similar core beliefs, unlike members of political parties in most other countries.
Political scientists sometimes organize the four major American political ideologies with respect to their preference for the size and influence of the political government. Libertarians favor almost no government at all, whereas socialists, at the other end of the spectrum, favor a high degree of government intervention. At the center of the spectrum, American liberals and conservatives represent a balance of the two extremes. Note that adherents to all four ideologies still favor representative democratic governments.
American Liberalism
American liberalism argues that the government needs to act to ensure equality among its citizens. Historically, for example, liberal groups worked to promote civil rights for African Americans and other minorities. In current politics, many liberals are pushing for gay rights, affirmative action, open immigration, and similar policies.
American Liberal Beliefs
Generally, liberals push for social, political, and economic equality, as well as expansive civil liberties. Liberals generally want the government to help the poor and make sure that the rich do not have too much power. Although they support capitalism, liberals do not want a completely free market; some government action is needed to ameliorate the worst aspects of the market. Therefore, liberals tend to favor:
- Graduated income taxes that tax the wealthier more than the poor
- Welfare programs to aid the poor
- Major government spending on education
- Job-retraining programs for unemployed workers
- Action to promote equal opportunity
- Expanded civil liberties
The chart on the following page lists the different views held by liberals and conservatives on a variety of issues. Of course, individual beliefs transcend general categories: Some conservatives are pro-choice, some liberals are anti–gun control, and some liberals and conservatives might not have strongly held views on any of those issues.
| LIBERAL VIEWS VERSUS CONSERVATIVE VIEWS | ||
| Issue | Liberal View | Conservative View |
| Abortion | Legal and open to all women | Immoral and should be banned |
| Gun control | Heavy restrictions | Few restrictions |
| Taxes | Higher, progressive | Lower, flatter |
| Affirmative action | Necessary to make up for centuries of discrimination | Unfair because it reversely favors some and excludes others |
| Gay marriage | Should be legal | Should be illegal |
How a Liberal Becomes a Conservative
There are many adages about how belief changes. For example, one adage states that a conservative is a liberal who has been mugged, while a liberal is a conservative who has lost his or her job. Winston Churchill is said to have remarked, “Any twenty-year-old who isn’t a liberal doesn’t have a heart, and any forty-year-old who isn’t a conservative doesn’t have a brain.”
American Conservatism
American conservatism argues that the government’s main job is to protect freedom and provide security. Beyond that, the government should stay out of people’s lives and should allow people to do, act, and behave as they see fit. According to conservatives, freedom trumps equality: The government should promote the former, regardless of how expanded freedoms might affect equality.
